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【Abstract】Homosexuality has a long history in both Chinese and western culture. This paper explores the historical development of homosexuality and analyzes the impact of Confucianism or Taoism and Christianity on this phenomenon. By such a comparative analysis， it can be discovered that homosexuality has suffered from a varying degree of prejudice， discrimination， oppression and even persecution. Hopefully， homosexuality can be fully understood and all the society can at large develop a healthier attitude， and give them respect， equality and freedom.
【Key words】homosexuality； history； China； the west； cross-culture
1. Introduction
Homosexuality， a cross-cultural social phenomenon， is prevalent in all periods of Chinese and western history. However， homosexuals have suffered from varying degrees of prejudice， discrimination and oppression. In fact， they have been leading an outcast life in a mute agony， repressing natural sexual impulses and reversing normal sexual orientation. There are plenty of stories filled with blood and tears behind them. Due to the “original sin” belief held by western Christianity， the majority people believe human nature is evil， homosexuals， thus， had been brutally treated in the Middle Ages of Europe. While Chinese homosexuals did not endure such persecution in history， but homosexuality had also been criticized by the traditional Chinese ethics of Confucianism and Taoism. Even in China and some western countries today， homosexual love is still a shameful topic and is regarded as “Forbidden Love”.
At present， many researches on homosexuality have been made at home and abroad. They summarized the characteristics of homosexuals， the causes and the impact on the society， while there are few studies from an angle of cross-culture. This paper will fill in this gap.
2. The Homosexuality in Chinese and Western History
Homosexuality， a sexual attraction to persons of the same sex， has a long history in Chinese and western culture. There are some similarities and differences in their historical development.
2.1 The Development of Homosexuality in Chinese History
Actually， it is difficult to confirm the specific time when homosexuality started in ancient China. From the book Yuewei Cottage Notes written by Ji Xiaolan， it can be discovered that male homosexuality can be traced back to the earliest ancestor of Chinese civilization the Yellow Emperor. Besides， according to many formal historical documents in China， homosexuality stems from the Shang Dynasty. The Shang Dynasty Records said “three bad social behaviors and the 10 sins they generate”（三风十愆）， of the three bad social behaviors， one is called “luan feng”（乱风） including 4 sins it generates， one is named “bi wantong”（比顽童）. “wan tong” is the same as “catamite” in Yuewei Cottage Notes. Although the earliest historical record of homosexuality describes it a disgraceful conduct， it at least turns out that homosexuality existed more than 3，000 years ago. During the Zhou Dynasty， especially in the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods， homosexuality was booming and good-looking men were society’s new favorite. For instance， Mi Zixia was favored by the Duke Ling of Wei， they made a household story “the leftover peach”， then， people often adopt this term to refer to the same-sex love. In addition， the relation between Qu Yuan， a poet of the Kingdom of Chu， and King Chu-huai is so controversial.
During the prosperous Han Dynasty， homosexuality was prevailing among emperors and ministers. Based on Historical Records and The Book of Han Dynasty， the overwhelming majority of emperors in Han Dynasty have male lovers， like Emperor Ai. Allegedly he cut off his sleeve pressed under Dong Xian with sword in order not to wake him up. Thus the phrase “breaking the sleeves” began to be employed to indicate homosexual relationship.
After the Han Dynasty， male homosexuality experienced ups and downs. The general attitude towards male homosexuality began to be tolerant， as long as homosexuals fulfilled their filial duties by getting married and continuing the family line. The trend of homosexuality has been further developed. The three Kingdoms is the transitional period. To Wei Jin and Northern and Southern Dynasties， homosexuality was widely in vogue. Gays were not only present in upper class， but nearly all classes. In addition， the prosperity of poetry about homosexuality was the obvious character in this period. Young-huai poetry written by Ruan Ji eulogizes the homosexual love. He praised the joy of same-sex love and compared homosexual lovers to two birds flying together（愿为双飞鸟， 比翼共翱翔）. What’s more， A New Account of the Tales of the World said Shan Tao’s wife suspected the relationship among he， Ruan Ji and Ji Kan， and the author adopted “unusual relationship”（异于常交）to describe their relationship.
In Tang Dynasty， few historical records of male love were documented. Some scholars hold that this trend is in decline， while Tang popular literature embodies male homosexuality， and often in the context of male prostitution. Then first negative term “Ji Jian” appeared. In the following Song dynasty， the trend was currently tremendous until the Huizong period of Song Dynasty. The first law against male prostitutes went into effect. To Yuan Dynasty， male same-sex love was fading out again. However， to the Wanli period of the Ming Dynasty， prostitution grew quickly due to the commercial development and the peaceful state frontier. Male prostitutes were widely available to meet their clients’ specific requirements at that time. In addition， prostitution was a common practice because the moral concept promoted by Wang Yangming who advocated individuality and ego development. His followers subsequently developed this philosophy and proposed that desires and emotions were an integral part of human nature ， people should freely release the erotic feelings. Male homosexuality continued from strength to strength during the Qing Dynasty. There is a rumor that Qian Long favors He Shen just because he looks like Ma Jia（马佳氏）. Besides， most literati believed Wang Yangming’s philosophy， which led to a flourishing of literature with homosexual themes， such as A Dream of Red Mansions， Yi Xiang Chun Zhi， Long Yang Yi Shi and Pin Hua Bao Jian. However， this eventually gave rise to a backlash that Qing government made anti-gay rules， resulting in centuries of discrimination against homosexuality in China. Under the influence of traditional Confucianism： women were expected to behave a certain way and men should fulfill their roles as fathers or husbands， the rulers of the Qing Dynasty restored it as the ideology， and began punishing those who went against the doctrines. Homosexuals in China are living in the dark hereafter， but in some areas like Beijing， Shanghai， Chongqing， Xi’an， they are relatively more active and strive for their rights. Meanwhile， with the development of society， an increasing number of people gradually take it， but the vast majority is still neutral.
2.2 The Development of Homosexuality in Western History
Homosexuality can be dated to the ancient Greece. At that time， homosexuality was only restrained between a “beardless” youth and an older man. The order one was a mentor and only an “active” partner； and the youth， a “passive” partner， enriched knowledge and experience from the older， and repaid them with their youth and body. Once the youth reached adulthood and recognition as a citizen， they could choose either to get married with women or to be a lover of another same-sex youth. That is why the ancient Greeks once regarded homosexuality as a branch of the “higher education”. This practice was also valued for its academic benefits and as a means of population control. Homosexuality is also popular in literature. Homer’s Iliad is considered to be characterized by the male love. In Symposium， Plato believes that male homosexual love is superior to heterosexual love. In the war， male homosexual love is highly praised. Plato once wrote that soldiers in an army of male lovers would be more than a match for much larger armies： “For love will convert the veriest coward into an inspired hero.” The Sacred Band of Thebes was a famous army of male lovers.
In Rome， male love often occurs between slave owners and slaves， this same-sex love is just a kind of illicit sexual behavior instead of pedagogy. In the 4th century， Christianity had gradually become the popular religion. At first， homosexuality is tolerated. Toward the end of the Roman Empire， Roman society slowly showed negative attitude toward homosexuality. People’s attitude gradually changed from growing intolerance to actual persecution， and which was brought into Roman law in the 6th century. Emperor Justinian issued a law which claims to castrate those found guilty of homosexuality. Besides， homosexuals suffered more fierce and cruel persecution in Europe in the Middle Age. They were persecuted， tortured， castrated and even burned to death. In the 18th and the 19th century， the public attitude towards homosexuals became more tolerant. New names were coined to refer to homosexuality， such as “uranism”“middle sex” or the “the third sex”. However， homosexuals were still suffering from engrained discrimination. Homosexuality was considered as an form of mental illness in the 19th century. Until 1973 the American Psychiatric Association removed homosexuality from its official Diagnostic and Statistical Manual， signifying the end of homosexuality’s official status as a disease. And then the majority launched gay liberation movements to pursue their own legitimate rights.
In today， homosexuals get more understanding and respect with the development of modern civilization， it is reported that there has been 21 western countries in the world decriminalizing homosexuality including the Netherlands（2001）， Belgium（2003）， Spain（2005）， Norway（2009）， Sweden（2009）， Portugal（2010）， Iceland（2010）， Denmark（2012）， France（2013）， the U.K（England， Wales and Scotland）（2014）， Luxembourg（2015）， Slovenia（2015）， Ireland（2015）， Canada（2005）， Argentina（2010）， Uruguay（2013）， Brazil（2013）， Mexico（2015）， the U.S（2015）， South Africa（2006）， New Zealand（2013）.
3. Comparative Analysis of the Impact of Traditional Ethics on Homosexuality in China and the West
In the west， after the long-term popularity in Greece， homosexuals suffered cruel treatments in the Medieval in Europe under the influence of Christianity. Christians believe “original sin” and hold that homosexuality is a sinful social behavior and deserves the Churches’ condemnation based on the Bible. Christian doctrines point that homosexual acts lead to immoral social climate and should be sentenced to death. Since the Christianity became the official religion of Roman， homosexuals had been experiencing prejudice， even persecution. Until 18th and 19th， the situation improves. Even so， the Christian Church still holds that homosexual actions are sinful.
In China， homosexuals do not suffered from such persecution as that in the Medieval in Europe. Confucians advocate “Doctrine of the Mean” which permeates in many aspects of sexual culture and thus， many people are neutral. Besides， consolidation of marriage， family and reproduction are emphasized， especially having sons is a very important duty. Men are endowed with an intangible responsibility to make family harmonious and continue the family line. A person who has same-gender lovers is not dutiful. In addition， Taoism stresses maintaining the balance between Yin and Yang. Homosexuality， a Yang-yang or Yin-yin relationship， breaks the Yin-yang balance. 4. Conclusion
By such a comparative analysis all above， it can be discovered that homosexuality as a sub-culture phenomenon in both China and the west has experienced a long history， and has not been fully accepted by the majority in society under the influence of respective deep-rooted traditional ethics. Throughout all history， homosexuality has been undergoing ups and downs in different historical periods until today. Although Chinese Confucianism or Taoism is much more tolerant toward homosexuality than western Christianity in history， in both today， this minority group is still dreaming of more respect， equality and freedom.
In short， the attitudes towards homosexuality to a great extend reflect the degree of a country’s civilization. Homosexuality is natural and just a way of life and nothing but a different sexual orientation. Hopefully， all society can minimize the misunderstanding and create a hostile climate for this minority group.
References：
[1]郑微微.现代美国同性恋解放运动[D].上海：上海外国语大学，2005.
[2]缪勋.基督教：美国同性恋的主要对立力量[D].上海：上海外国语大学，2008.
[3]李银河.同性恋亚文化[M].北京：中国友谊出版社，2002.
[4]李银河.性文化研究[M].南京：江苏人民出版社，2003.
【Key words】homosexuality； history； China； the west； cross-culture
1. Introduction
Homosexuality， a cross-cultural social phenomenon， is prevalent in all periods of Chinese and western history. However， homosexuals have suffered from varying degrees of prejudice， discrimination and oppression. In fact， they have been leading an outcast life in a mute agony， repressing natural sexual impulses and reversing normal sexual orientation. There are plenty of stories filled with blood and tears behind them. Due to the “original sin” belief held by western Christianity， the majority people believe human nature is evil， homosexuals， thus， had been brutally treated in the Middle Ages of Europe. While Chinese homosexuals did not endure such persecution in history， but homosexuality had also been criticized by the traditional Chinese ethics of Confucianism and Taoism. Even in China and some western countries today， homosexual love is still a shameful topic and is regarded as “Forbidden Love”.
At present， many researches on homosexuality have been made at home and abroad. They summarized the characteristics of homosexuals， the causes and the impact on the society， while there are few studies from an angle of cross-culture. This paper will fill in this gap.
2. The Homosexuality in Chinese and Western History
Homosexuality， a sexual attraction to persons of the same sex， has a long history in Chinese and western culture. There are some similarities and differences in their historical development.
2.1 The Development of Homosexuality in Chinese History
Actually， it is difficult to confirm the specific time when homosexuality started in ancient China. From the book Yuewei Cottage Notes written by Ji Xiaolan， it can be discovered that male homosexuality can be traced back to the earliest ancestor of Chinese civilization the Yellow Emperor. Besides， according to many formal historical documents in China， homosexuality stems from the Shang Dynasty. The Shang Dynasty Records said “three bad social behaviors and the 10 sins they generate”（三风十愆）， of the three bad social behaviors， one is called “luan feng”（乱风） including 4 sins it generates， one is named “bi wantong”（比顽童）. “wan tong” is the same as “catamite” in Yuewei Cottage Notes. Although the earliest historical record of homosexuality describes it a disgraceful conduct， it at least turns out that homosexuality existed more than 3，000 years ago. During the Zhou Dynasty， especially in the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods， homosexuality was booming and good-looking men were society’s new favorite. For instance， Mi Zixia was favored by the Duke Ling of Wei， they made a household story “the leftover peach”， then， people often adopt this term to refer to the same-sex love. In addition， the relation between Qu Yuan， a poet of the Kingdom of Chu， and King Chu-huai is so controversial.
During the prosperous Han Dynasty， homosexuality was prevailing among emperors and ministers. Based on Historical Records and The Book of Han Dynasty， the overwhelming majority of emperors in Han Dynasty have male lovers， like Emperor Ai. Allegedly he cut off his sleeve pressed under Dong Xian with sword in order not to wake him up. Thus the phrase “breaking the sleeves” began to be employed to indicate homosexual relationship.
After the Han Dynasty， male homosexuality experienced ups and downs. The general attitude towards male homosexuality began to be tolerant， as long as homosexuals fulfilled their filial duties by getting married and continuing the family line. The trend of homosexuality has been further developed. The three Kingdoms is the transitional period. To Wei Jin and Northern and Southern Dynasties， homosexuality was widely in vogue. Gays were not only present in upper class， but nearly all classes. In addition， the prosperity of poetry about homosexuality was the obvious character in this period. Young-huai poetry written by Ruan Ji eulogizes the homosexual love. He praised the joy of same-sex love and compared homosexual lovers to two birds flying together（愿为双飞鸟， 比翼共翱翔）. What’s more， A New Account of the Tales of the World said Shan Tao’s wife suspected the relationship among he， Ruan Ji and Ji Kan， and the author adopted “unusual relationship”（异于常交）to describe their relationship.
In Tang Dynasty， few historical records of male love were documented. Some scholars hold that this trend is in decline， while Tang popular literature embodies male homosexuality， and often in the context of male prostitution. Then first negative term “Ji Jian” appeared. In the following Song dynasty， the trend was currently tremendous until the Huizong period of Song Dynasty. The first law against male prostitutes went into effect. To Yuan Dynasty， male same-sex love was fading out again. However， to the Wanli period of the Ming Dynasty， prostitution grew quickly due to the commercial development and the peaceful state frontier. Male prostitutes were widely available to meet their clients’ specific requirements at that time. In addition， prostitution was a common practice because the moral concept promoted by Wang Yangming who advocated individuality and ego development. His followers subsequently developed this philosophy and proposed that desires and emotions were an integral part of human nature ， people should freely release the erotic feelings. Male homosexuality continued from strength to strength during the Qing Dynasty. There is a rumor that Qian Long favors He Shen just because he looks like Ma Jia（马佳氏）. Besides， most literati believed Wang Yangming’s philosophy， which led to a flourishing of literature with homosexual themes， such as A Dream of Red Mansions， Yi Xiang Chun Zhi， Long Yang Yi Shi and Pin Hua Bao Jian. However， this eventually gave rise to a backlash that Qing government made anti-gay rules， resulting in centuries of discrimination against homosexuality in China. Under the influence of traditional Confucianism： women were expected to behave a certain way and men should fulfill their roles as fathers or husbands， the rulers of the Qing Dynasty restored it as the ideology， and began punishing those who went against the doctrines. Homosexuals in China are living in the dark hereafter， but in some areas like Beijing， Shanghai， Chongqing， Xi’an， they are relatively more active and strive for their rights. Meanwhile， with the development of society， an increasing number of people gradually take it， but the vast majority is still neutral.
2.2 The Development of Homosexuality in Western History
Homosexuality can be dated to the ancient Greece. At that time， homosexuality was only restrained between a “beardless” youth and an older man. The order one was a mentor and only an “active” partner； and the youth， a “passive” partner， enriched knowledge and experience from the older， and repaid them with their youth and body. Once the youth reached adulthood and recognition as a citizen， they could choose either to get married with women or to be a lover of another same-sex youth. That is why the ancient Greeks once regarded homosexuality as a branch of the “higher education”. This practice was also valued for its academic benefits and as a means of population control. Homosexuality is also popular in literature. Homer’s Iliad is considered to be characterized by the male love. In Symposium， Plato believes that male homosexual love is superior to heterosexual love. In the war， male homosexual love is highly praised. Plato once wrote that soldiers in an army of male lovers would be more than a match for much larger armies： “For love will convert the veriest coward into an inspired hero.” The Sacred Band of Thebes was a famous army of male lovers.
In Rome， male love often occurs between slave owners and slaves， this same-sex love is just a kind of illicit sexual behavior instead of pedagogy. In the 4th century， Christianity had gradually become the popular religion. At first， homosexuality is tolerated. Toward the end of the Roman Empire， Roman society slowly showed negative attitude toward homosexuality. People’s attitude gradually changed from growing intolerance to actual persecution， and which was brought into Roman law in the 6th century. Emperor Justinian issued a law which claims to castrate those found guilty of homosexuality. Besides， homosexuals suffered more fierce and cruel persecution in Europe in the Middle Age. They were persecuted， tortured， castrated and even burned to death. In the 18th and the 19th century， the public attitude towards homosexuals became more tolerant. New names were coined to refer to homosexuality， such as “uranism”“middle sex” or the “the third sex”. However， homosexuals were still suffering from engrained discrimination. Homosexuality was considered as an form of mental illness in the 19th century. Until 1973 the American Psychiatric Association removed homosexuality from its official Diagnostic and Statistical Manual， signifying the end of homosexuality’s official status as a disease. And then the majority launched gay liberation movements to pursue their own legitimate rights.
In today， homosexuals get more understanding and respect with the development of modern civilization， it is reported that there has been 21 western countries in the world decriminalizing homosexuality including the Netherlands（2001）， Belgium（2003）， Spain（2005）， Norway（2009）， Sweden（2009）， Portugal（2010）， Iceland（2010）， Denmark（2012）， France（2013）， the U.K（England， Wales and Scotland）（2014）， Luxembourg（2015）， Slovenia（2015）， Ireland（2015）， Canada（2005）， Argentina（2010）， Uruguay（2013）， Brazil（2013）， Mexico（2015）， the U.S（2015）， South Africa（2006）， New Zealand（2013）.
3. Comparative Analysis of the Impact of Traditional Ethics on Homosexuality in China and the West
In the west， after the long-term popularity in Greece， homosexuals suffered cruel treatments in the Medieval in Europe under the influence of Christianity. Christians believe “original sin” and hold that homosexuality is a sinful social behavior and deserves the Churches’ condemnation based on the Bible. Christian doctrines point that homosexual acts lead to immoral social climate and should be sentenced to death. Since the Christianity became the official religion of Roman， homosexuals had been experiencing prejudice， even persecution. Until 18th and 19th， the situation improves. Even so， the Christian Church still holds that homosexual actions are sinful.
In China， homosexuals do not suffered from such persecution as that in the Medieval in Europe. Confucians advocate “Doctrine of the Mean” which permeates in many aspects of sexual culture and thus， many people are neutral. Besides， consolidation of marriage， family and reproduction are emphasized， especially having sons is a very important duty. Men are endowed with an intangible responsibility to make family harmonious and continue the family line. A person who has same-gender lovers is not dutiful. In addition， Taoism stresses maintaining the balance between Yin and Yang. Homosexuality， a Yang-yang or Yin-yin relationship， breaks the Yin-yang balance. 4. Conclusion
By such a comparative analysis all above， it can be discovered that homosexuality as a sub-culture phenomenon in both China and the west has experienced a long history， and has not been fully accepted by the majority in society under the influence of respective deep-rooted traditional ethics. Throughout all history， homosexuality has been undergoing ups and downs in different historical periods until today. Although Chinese Confucianism or Taoism is much more tolerant toward homosexuality than western Christianity in history， in both today， this minority group is still dreaming of more respect， equality and freedom.
In short， the attitudes towards homosexuality to a great extend reflect the degree of a country’s civilization. Homosexuality is natural and just a way of life and nothing but a different sexual orientation. Hopefully， all society can minimize the misunderstanding and create a hostile climate for this minority group.
References：
[1]郑微微.现代美国同性恋解放运动[D].上海：上海外国语大学，2005.
[2]缪勋.基督教：美国同性恋的主要对立力量[D].上海：上海外国语大学，2008.
[3]李银河.同性恋亚文化[M].北京：中国友谊出版社，2002.
[4]李银河.性文化研究[M].南京：江苏人民出版社，2003.