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一、英语写作中的有效句子及验证
英语写作是书面（文字）交流手段，有它本身的表达（交流）方式和准则。仅从句子而言，初学写作的人，首先要练写语法正确的句子，然而语法正确的句子不一定就等于写作中的有效句子（Effective Sentences），写作有写作的艺术。何谓写作中的有效句子？归纳起来，我们要从三方面审查自己所写出的句子是否有效。
（一）要检查句子的语法是否正确，语法不正确的句子，绝对谈不上是有效句子。
诸如：
1.检查句子中代词指代是否清楚。如：Dr. Frye told Dr. Anderson that he should operate immediately.（句子中he究竟指谁？是Dr. Anderson该开刀，还是Dr. Frye?）。改为：Dr. Frye told Dr. Anderson to operate immediately.
2. 检查并列结构是否有错误。如：
Mary needs a coffee break and resting for fifteen minutes.（并列连词连结的两部分不平衡）改为：Mary needs a coffee break and a fifteen minutes’rest.
3. 检查修饰词是否错位。如：
A car drove down the street decked with ribbons.（修饰词错位）改为：
A car decked with ribbons drove down the street.
4. 检查非谓语动词有无垂悬错误。如：
a.Reading，the doorbell rang.（分词垂悬）改为：Reading，I heard the doorbell ring.
b.From attending class，the principles of chemistry were made clear.（动名词垂悬）改为：From attending class，we came to understand the principles of chemistry.
c.To learn French cooking，a lot ofpractice is necessary.（动词不定式垂悬）改为：To learn French cooking，a student needs a lot of practice.
d.While running down the stairs，the clock struck twelve.（省略垂悬）改为：While running down the stairs，I heard the clock struck twelve.
e.Having come of age，I took my son into partnership with me.（悬空修饰词是写作之大忌）改为：Having come of age，my son entered into partnership with me.或When my son came of age，I took him into partnership.
（二）要仔细琢磨句子在语义上，修饰方面意思是否准确完整，主次是否分明，重点是否突出，逻辑性是否强，措词是否言简意赅。有些句子即使语法正确，也不一定是写作中的有效句子。
1. 有效句子要准确完整。请对比：
a.The little boy was so scared.（不完整）
比较：The little boy was so scared that he cried out.（完整）
b.To read a novel is a thing.（不清楚）
比较：To read an English novel is a hard thing.（准确清楚）
c.Bernard Shaw was one of the bestknown playwrights. （不完整）
比较：Bernard Shaw was one of the bestknown playwrights of England.（完整）
2. 有效句子只能有一个中心思想（或重心），即要主次分明，重点突出。请对比：
a.John comes from a large， lower-class family， and he enrolled in college this fall.（主次不分明）
比较：John， who comes from a large， lower-class family， enrollcd in college this fall.（主次分明）
b.Tom was grestly surprised by the news. He immediately telephoned his parents.（主次不分明）
比较：Greatly surprised by the news， Tom immediately telephoned his parents.（有主有次）
c.Mr. Edwards is the manager of the store， and he is a city councilman.（主次不分明）
比较：Mr. Edward， the manager of the-store， is a city councilman.（有主有次）
另外，请对比下列句子，学习如何才能表达突出重点：
a.The guards were fully armed， and they expected trouble.（平淡无力）
比较：Expecting trouble， the guards were fully armed.（重点突出）
b.Knut Hamsun was a Norwegian novelist，and he won a Nobel Prize.（平淡无力）
比较：A Nobel Prize winner，Knut Hamsun was a Norwegian novelist. （重点突出）
c.I have never seen such a beautiful girl as she is in all my life.（语气弱）
比较：Never in all my life have I seen such a beautiful girl as she is.（语气较强）
d.I was seen by most of the girls. （语气弱）
比较：Most of the girls saw me.（语气强）
e.The studedt who cheats in an examination is cheating only himself ultimately.（修飾词的位置不当）
比较：The student who cheats in an examination is ultimately cheating only himself.（修饰词位置恰当地起到了重点突出的作用）
改为：The food was fine except for the cake，which I didn’t like.
c.We were looking for a shady spot， we couldn’t find one.
改为：We were looking for a shady spot， but we couldn’t find one.
d.It was raining hard，they could not work in the fields.
改為：As it was raining hard， they could not work in the fields.
2. 写作不是句子的堆砌，要防止写出无任何标点符号的一串句子。学习英语写作，要学习英语标点符号的正确用法。标点符号错误可以造成很多误解，然而无任何标点符号的一串句子，更令读者费解。如：
a.At first I wondered if I should speak to her she seemed to be so wrapped up in her thoughts.（令人不解的一串句子）
改为：She seemed so wrapped up in her thoughts that at first I wondered if I should speak to her.（清楚明白的句子）
b.I almost decided to walk by and pretend I did not see her she might think I was intruding. （无标点的句子）
改为：Fearing that she might think I was intruding， I almost decided to walk by and pretend not to see her.（清晰的句子）
c.I was lonesome I decided to speak and I said hello in a weak voice.（无标点的句子）
改为：As I was lonesome， I decided to speak to her， and I said hello in a weak voice.
学习英语写作，首先要从单句练起。要练习写有效的句子，以上提到的三个方面可作借鉴。
二、英语句子连贯成段技巧及验证方法
（一）英语句子连贯成段技巧
1. 主题句的确定是英语成段的关键
按整篇的构思层次确定每段的中心思想（controlling idea），根据每段想要表达的中心思想，确定出一个句子即谓之主题句（topic sentence），主题句的产生首先思考的应是选择表达中心思想的关键词或词组，这称之为topic outline。然后扩展成该段中心思想的主题句。主题句确定后，围绕主题句以逻辑顺序安排该段的支持句来衬托主题，从而完成段落写作。
请看下例：
A Paragraph
Topic outline——a key word or phrase
Topic sentence——controlling idea
Supporting detail——a——
b——
c——
Concluding sentence
2. 句子连贯成段技巧实例
（1）记叙空间方位段落
Topic outline：visit to a campus
Topic sentence：on my first visit to the college campus， I saw many buildings.
Supporting detail：
a) The administration building
b) The library
c) The classroom buildings
d) The faculty offices
e) The student center and cafeteria
f) The bookstore
g) The gymnasium and athletic fields
h) The student dormitories
围绕主题句如何将所见的校园建筑物告诉读者，第一要写出正确句子，第二那就是连贯技巧了。在记叙文“空间”段落里，句子的连贯通常要运用以下表方位的词或词组来衔接：
abovebefore hereon the left
across from belowin the distanceon the right
adjacent tobeyond nearby opposite
also furthernext to on top of
up down close to beneath
underaroundnear toover
（2）记叙文用代词连结段落
Karl wrote a number of suggestions to the newspaper about low-cost housing. Although they were not all practical suggestions， they were original enough to be published， leading to a surprising response from the public. Hundreds of letters were written to the editor. Some of them favored Karl’s plans；others criticized them. The editor chose five letters in favor of Karl’s plans and five letters opposed to them. These were all published in the newspaper the following week.
该段共六个句子。第一句是主题句，关键词是suggestions。第二句用了让步过渡词although与第一句连接。其中对主题句中的关键词用了两个代词they，句子结尾用了分词短语表结果。第三句是对主题的最强有力的支持句，由“suggestions”过渡到引起强烈反响的“letters”。第四句运用了并列连词与第三句衔接，替代“letters”又用了两个they代词。……最后一句用指示代词衔接。使用代词不仅使句子连贯，且使段落文字简练。
（3）说明文逻辑顺序段落
To build your own sunscope， get a carton and cut a hole in one side， big enough to poke your head through. Paste white paper on the inside surface that you will be facing. Then punch a pinhole into the opposite side high enough so that the little shaft of light will miss your head. For a sharper image you can make a better pinhole by cutting a one-inch square hole in the carton， taping a piece of aluminum foil over this hole， and then making the pinhole in the foil. Finally， tape the box shut and cover all light leaks with black tape.
该段每句依太阳显示器制作过程按先后顺序排列，直至用then，最后用finally圆满衔接。
（4）描写文重复用词段落
a)Johnny Clem was small for his age， but what he lacked in size he more than made up for in courage and deterimination. This was something that his friends in Newark， Ohio（纽瓦克，俄亥俄州）soon recognized. It was something that his fellow soldiers in the Union army， and the troops of the enemy too， were to learn.
b)When I go into a bank I get frightened， the clerks frighten me；the desks frighten me；the sight of money frightens me；everything frightens me.
（二）段落驗证
1. 段落验证方法
段落并非句子的堆砌。每段要按特定的写作目的分轻重缓急，运用各种连贯技巧，把主题句和支持句有机地衔接成段。段落写好后，还应按下列各条检查是否完善和理想。
A. 段中每个句子写得是否正确完整？
B. 句子的长短和结构是否多样化？
C. 段落所述内容是否统一？
D. 有无主题句表达中心思想？
E. 句子间衔接否？
2. 段落验证举例
（1）“自我画像”段落
I am short 5 foot tall and not so skinny. My bones are of medium build. My face is the shape of an egg. My nose is small and looks like someone could ski down it. My hair and eyes are deep brown. My lips are not so red and a middle size.The clothes I wear are comfortable to me. I usually wear a pair of jeans and a T-shirt. I always wear jewelry， at least one ring， a watch and necklace.
此段写得不好。共9个句子的段落，2—9句均是以I，my开头的同类句型。且第1句用词不当，第2句用bones来描写身材不妥。4句和6句不协调，8句和9句也要作适当修改。没有主题句。段末应添加结论性的语言来概括本段的主题，体现本人的个性。
请对比修改后的此段：
I am short and not skinny， of medium build. Egg-shaped would be a good way to describe my face. My nose is small and its shape resembles a ski-jump in the flea Olympics. My hair and eyes are deep brown. My medium-sized lips are the color of faded coral， which suggests that I generally keep by mouth shut when out in the sun. The clothes I wear are comfortable to me. I usually wear a pair of jeans and a T-shirt， but I always wear jewelry， at least one ring， a watch and necklace. This description must lead anyone reading it to conclude that I’m the kind of person who might be overlooked in a crowd. My vibrant personality and winning smile， however， insure a second look.
（2）议论文段落
Japanese women have changed since the war. They have become prettier， brighter， more decisive（果断的）， more outspoken（坦率的）. The young people certainly are far more logical and far less sentimental（多愁善感）than the prewar generations. Some regret this. They think women， in gaining their freedom， have lost their femininity（女人气质）——their modesty， their warmth， their shy grace. They accuse women of being drawn to superficial（浅薄）things. A modern Japanese woman， they say， instead of trying to enrich her inner self， is in a mad scramble（争夺）to ape（模仿）anything that is new and foreign-fashions，cosmetics（化妆）， hairdos， rock-and-date wife is one who sits beside a washing machine in a house that has no hot running water.
本段议论的中心是日本妇女。第一句是主题句，表本段中心思想，开门见山地道出战后日本妇女起了变化。第2—3句用具体变化的事实衬托发展了主题。第四句过渡到更细致的议论日本妇女的变化。整段议论内容统一，依直线型发展，衔接紧凑，是写得较好的段落。
总之学习写作要从学写正确句子开始，然后要学习灵活多样的运用句子连贯成文的技巧，如用代词、连词、方位词等衔接，用转折词过渡，重复用词和词组及平等结构润色等。千万要避免：（1）一串句子均用同一词和同一主语开头。（2）一串句子均用分词短语开头。（3）一串句子均用同类句型。（4）一串句子均用同类从属句开头等弊病。
参考文献：
［1］Marcia Kemen Antonelis. Some Techniques for Group Instruction. English Forum July 1983.pp.23-26.
［2］Dixon， Duncan. Teaching Composition to Large Classes. English Teaching Forum，July 1986.pp.2-5.
［3］John Langan. College Writing Skills. (Fourth Edition)Atlantic Community College.
英语写作是书面（文字）交流手段，有它本身的表达（交流）方式和准则。仅从句子而言，初学写作的人，首先要练写语法正确的句子，然而语法正确的句子不一定就等于写作中的有效句子（Effective Sentences），写作有写作的艺术。何谓写作中的有效句子？归纳起来，我们要从三方面审查自己所写出的句子是否有效。
（一）要检查句子的语法是否正确，语法不正确的句子，绝对谈不上是有效句子。
诸如：
1.检查句子中代词指代是否清楚。如：Dr. Frye told Dr. Anderson that he should operate immediately.（句子中he究竟指谁？是Dr. Anderson该开刀，还是Dr. Frye?）。改为：Dr. Frye told Dr. Anderson to operate immediately.
2. 检查并列结构是否有错误。如：
Mary needs a coffee break and resting for fifteen minutes.（并列连词连结的两部分不平衡）改为：Mary needs a coffee break and a fifteen minutes’rest.
3. 检查修饰词是否错位。如：
A car drove down the street decked with ribbons.（修饰词错位）改为：
A car decked with ribbons drove down the street.
4. 检查非谓语动词有无垂悬错误。如：
a.Reading，the doorbell rang.（分词垂悬）改为：Reading，I heard the doorbell ring.
b.From attending class，the principles of chemistry were made clear.（动名词垂悬）改为：From attending class，we came to understand the principles of chemistry.
c.To learn French cooking，a lot ofpractice is necessary.（动词不定式垂悬）改为：To learn French cooking，a student needs a lot of practice.
d.While running down the stairs，the clock struck twelve.（省略垂悬）改为：While running down the stairs，I heard the clock struck twelve.
e.Having come of age，I took my son into partnership with me.（悬空修饰词是写作之大忌）改为：Having come of age，my son entered into partnership with me.或When my son came of age，I took him into partnership.
（二）要仔细琢磨句子在语义上，修饰方面意思是否准确完整，主次是否分明，重点是否突出，逻辑性是否强，措词是否言简意赅。有些句子即使语法正确，也不一定是写作中的有效句子。
1. 有效句子要准确完整。请对比：
a.The little boy was so scared.（不完整）
比较：The little boy was so scared that he cried out.（完整）
b.To read a novel is a thing.（不清楚）
比较：To read an English novel is a hard thing.（准确清楚）
c.Bernard Shaw was one of the bestknown playwrights. （不完整）
比较：Bernard Shaw was one of the bestknown playwrights of England.（完整）
2. 有效句子只能有一个中心思想（或重心），即要主次分明，重点突出。请对比：
a.John comes from a large， lower-class family， and he enrolled in college this fall.（主次不分明）
比较：John， who comes from a large， lower-class family， enrollcd in college this fall.（主次分明）
b.Tom was grestly surprised by the news. He immediately telephoned his parents.（主次不分明）
比较：Greatly surprised by the news， Tom immediately telephoned his parents.（有主有次）
c.Mr. Edwards is the manager of the store， and he is a city councilman.（主次不分明）
比较：Mr. Edward， the manager of the-store， is a city councilman.（有主有次）
另外，请对比下列句子，学习如何才能表达突出重点：
a.The guards were fully armed， and they expected trouble.（平淡无力）
比较：Expecting trouble， the guards were fully armed.（重点突出）
b.Knut Hamsun was a Norwegian novelist，and he won a Nobel Prize.（平淡无力）
比较：A Nobel Prize winner，Knut Hamsun was a Norwegian novelist. （重点突出）
c.I have never seen such a beautiful girl as she is in all my life.（语气弱）
比较：Never in all my life have I seen such a beautiful girl as she is.（语气较强）
d.I was seen by most of the girls. （语气弱）
比较：Most of the girls saw me.（语气强）
e.The studedt who cheats in an examination is cheating only himself ultimately.（修飾词的位置不当）
比较：The student who cheats in an examination is ultimately cheating only himself.（修饰词位置恰当地起到了重点突出的作用）
改为：The food was fine except for the cake，which I didn’t like.
c.We were looking for a shady spot， we couldn’t find one.
改为：We were looking for a shady spot， but we couldn’t find one.
d.It was raining hard，they could not work in the fields.
改為：As it was raining hard， they could not work in the fields.
2. 写作不是句子的堆砌，要防止写出无任何标点符号的一串句子。学习英语写作，要学习英语标点符号的正确用法。标点符号错误可以造成很多误解，然而无任何标点符号的一串句子，更令读者费解。如：
a.At first I wondered if I should speak to her she seemed to be so wrapped up in her thoughts.（令人不解的一串句子）
改为：She seemed so wrapped up in her thoughts that at first I wondered if I should speak to her.（清楚明白的句子）
b.I almost decided to walk by and pretend I did not see her she might think I was intruding. （无标点的句子）
改为：Fearing that she might think I was intruding， I almost decided to walk by and pretend not to see her.（清晰的句子）
c.I was lonesome I decided to speak and I said hello in a weak voice.（无标点的句子）
改为：As I was lonesome， I decided to speak to her， and I said hello in a weak voice.
学习英语写作，首先要从单句练起。要练习写有效的句子，以上提到的三个方面可作借鉴。
二、英语句子连贯成段技巧及验证方法
（一）英语句子连贯成段技巧
1. 主题句的确定是英语成段的关键
按整篇的构思层次确定每段的中心思想（controlling idea），根据每段想要表达的中心思想，确定出一个句子即谓之主题句（topic sentence），主题句的产生首先思考的应是选择表达中心思想的关键词或词组，这称之为topic outline。然后扩展成该段中心思想的主题句。主题句确定后，围绕主题句以逻辑顺序安排该段的支持句来衬托主题，从而完成段落写作。
请看下例：
A Paragraph
Topic outline——a key word or phrase
Topic sentence——controlling idea
Supporting detail——a——
b——
c——
Concluding sentence
2. 句子连贯成段技巧实例
（1）记叙空间方位段落
Topic outline：visit to a campus
Topic sentence：on my first visit to the college campus， I saw many buildings.
Supporting detail：
a) The administration building
b) The library
c) The classroom buildings
d) The faculty offices
e) The student center and cafeteria
f) The bookstore
g) The gymnasium and athletic fields
h) The student dormitories
围绕主题句如何将所见的校园建筑物告诉读者，第一要写出正确句子，第二那就是连贯技巧了。在记叙文“空间”段落里，句子的连贯通常要运用以下表方位的词或词组来衔接：
abovebefore hereon the left
across from belowin the distanceon the right
adjacent tobeyond nearby opposite
also furthernext to on top of
up down close to beneath
underaroundnear toover
（2）记叙文用代词连结段落
Karl wrote a number of suggestions to the newspaper about low-cost housing. Although they were not all practical suggestions， they were original enough to be published， leading to a surprising response from the public. Hundreds of letters were written to the editor. Some of them favored Karl’s plans；others criticized them. The editor chose five letters in favor of Karl’s plans and five letters opposed to them. These were all published in the newspaper the following week.
该段共六个句子。第一句是主题句，关键词是suggestions。第二句用了让步过渡词although与第一句连接。其中对主题句中的关键词用了两个代词they，句子结尾用了分词短语表结果。第三句是对主题的最强有力的支持句，由“suggestions”过渡到引起强烈反响的“letters”。第四句运用了并列连词与第三句衔接，替代“letters”又用了两个they代词。……最后一句用指示代词衔接。使用代词不仅使句子连贯，且使段落文字简练。
（3）说明文逻辑顺序段落
To build your own sunscope， get a carton and cut a hole in one side， big enough to poke your head through. Paste white paper on the inside surface that you will be facing. Then punch a pinhole into the opposite side high enough so that the little shaft of light will miss your head. For a sharper image you can make a better pinhole by cutting a one-inch square hole in the carton， taping a piece of aluminum foil over this hole， and then making the pinhole in the foil. Finally， tape the box shut and cover all light leaks with black tape.
该段每句依太阳显示器制作过程按先后顺序排列，直至用then，最后用finally圆满衔接。
（4）描写文重复用词段落
a)Johnny Clem was small for his age， but what he lacked in size he more than made up for in courage and deterimination. This was something that his friends in Newark， Ohio（纽瓦克，俄亥俄州）soon recognized. It was something that his fellow soldiers in the Union army， and the troops of the enemy too， were to learn.
b)When I go into a bank I get frightened， the clerks frighten me；the desks frighten me；the sight of money frightens me；everything frightens me.
（二）段落驗证
1. 段落验证方法
段落并非句子的堆砌。每段要按特定的写作目的分轻重缓急，运用各种连贯技巧，把主题句和支持句有机地衔接成段。段落写好后，还应按下列各条检查是否完善和理想。
A. 段中每个句子写得是否正确完整？
B. 句子的长短和结构是否多样化？
C. 段落所述内容是否统一？
D. 有无主题句表达中心思想？
E. 句子间衔接否？
2. 段落验证举例
（1）“自我画像”段落
I am short 5 foot tall and not so skinny. My bones are of medium build. My face is the shape of an egg. My nose is small and looks like someone could ski down it. My hair and eyes are deep brown. My lips are not so red and a middle size.The clothes I wear are comfortable to me. I usually wear a pair of jeans and a T-shirt. I always wear jewelry， at least one ring， a watch and necklace.
此段写得不好。共9个句子的段落，2—9句均是以I，my开头的同类句型。且第1句用词不当，第2句用bones来描写身材不妥。4句和6句不协调，8句和9句也要作适当修改。没有主题句。段末应添加结论性的语言来概括本段的主题，体现本人的个性。
请对比修改后的此段：
I am short and not skinny， of medium build. Egg-shaped would be a good way to describe my face. My nose is small and its shape resembles a ski-jump in the flea Olympics. My hair and eyes are deep brown. My medium-sized lips are the color of faded coral， which suggests that I generally keep by mouth shut when out in the sun. The clothes I wear are comfortable to me. I usually wear a pair of jeans and a T-shirt， but I always wear jewelry， at least one ring， a watch and necklace. This description must lead anyone reading it to conclude that I’m the kind of person who might be overlooked in a crowd. My vibrant personality and winning smile， however， insure a second look.
（2）议论文段落
Japanese women have changed since the war. They have become prettier， brighter， more decisive（果断的）， more outspoken（坦率的）. The young people certainly are far more logical and far less sentimental（多愁善感）than the prewar generations. Some regret this. They think women， in gaining their freedom， have lost their femininity（女人气质）——their modesty， their warmth， their shy grace. They accuse women of being drawn to superficial（浅薄）things. A modern Japanese woman， they say， instead of trying to enrich her inner self， is in a mad scramble（争夺）to ape（模仿）anything that is new and foreign-fashions，cosmetics（化妆）， hairdos， rock-and-date wife is one who sits beside a washing machine in a house that has no hot running water.
本段议论的中心是日本妇女。第一句是主题句，表本段中心思想，开门见山地道出战后日本妇女起了变化。第2—3句用具体变化的事实衬托发展了主题。第四句过渡到更细致的议论日本妇女的变化。整段议论内容统一，依直线型发展，衔接紧凑，是写得较好的段落。
总之学习写作要从学写正确句子开始，然后要学习灵活多样的运用句子连贯成文的技巧，如用代词、连词、方位词等衔接，用转折词过渡，重复用词和词组及平等结构润色等。千万要避免：（1）一串句子均用同一词和同一主语开头。（2）一串句子均用分词短语开头。（3）一串句子均用同类句型。（4）一串句子均用同类从属句开头等弊病。
参考文献：
［1］Marcia Kemen Antonelis. Some Techniques for Group Instruction. English Forum July 1983.pp.23-26.
［2］Dixon， Duncan. Teaching Composition to Large Classes. English Teaching Forum，July 1986.pp.2-5.
［3］John Langan. College Writing Skills. (Fourth Edition)Atlantic Community College.