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Models and observations are two fundamental methodological approaches in Earth system science (ESS).They evolve collaboratively and enhance one another.However,neither of these two approaches is perfect,and they have incompatibilities due to their methodological differences.The emergence of data assimilation (DA) has enabled these two approaches to develop in conjunction and form a harmonic ESS methodology.As a result,DA has shown a fresh vitality and applicability in ESS.This paper reviews the application of DA in the main branches of ESS,traces the coordinated evolution of DA with the methodologies of rationalism and empiricism,analyzes the relationships of DA with estimation theory and cybernetics,summarizes the advances of DA in China,and presents an outlook on the challenges facing the development of a uniform DA for ESS.DA theories and methods will continue to evolve and provide an increasingly mature methodology for enhancing the understanding and prediction of Earth as a system.