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The “Moso” (麽些) during the Ming and Qing dynasties includes present day Naxi, as well as the present day Mongolians in the areas of Muli, Yanyuan, and the “Nari” and“Namuyi” branches of the Tibetan . The Moso were distributed in the present day area of Lijiang , Diqing, Nujiang;the Mangkang area of Changdu;the Muli, Yanyuan, and Yanbian areas of Liangs-han Prefecture; and Batang and Litang of Ganzi Prefecture .Due to the special geographic environ-ment as well as policies implemented by various dynasties regarding the ethnic people in the border areas, the Moso formed a kind of culture with their own characteristics during the long process of histo-ry.In different historical periods , the Moso's cos-tume and culture also differed-some parts there were passed down , but there was also innovation and development .The regional characteristics of the Moso costume were obvious during the Ming and Qing dynasties.This article, from the perspec-tive historical geography , will discuss the geo-graphical distribution , evolution and formation of Moso costume during the Ming and Qing periods .
Costume is a marker of an “ethnic group” , and it includes both clothes and ornaments .Seen from the vertical line of history , the costume of Moso people has various characteristics in various periods;and seen from the horizontal line of histo-ry, the costume has very obvious regional differ-ences.There are few records on Moso costumes before the Ming dynasty .Only a few records are found, for example, in the shiji· xinanyi liezhuan ( An Account of the Southwestern Yi in The Records of the Historian) , xintangshu· nanman zhuan ( An Account of the Southern Barbarians in the New Tang History) .Since the Ming dynasty , there are more records about the Moso in Han Chinese litera-ture in which new characteristics of Moso costume could be noted .A kind of regional distribution of Moso costume appeared , including the Lijiang cos-tume zone , and the Yanyuan -Yongning costume zone . Seen from the characteristics of costume change , we can conduct research from three as-pectthe head dress , clothes and ornaments .
Compared with the Tang , Song and Yuan dy-nasties, the Moso costume in the Ming dynasty had the following obvious change the phenomenon of wearing a hat or a “cloth-made head dress” ap-peared in Lijiang , while the Yongning -Yanyuan areas still kept the original hair styles , i.e.plai-ted hair and the “three tower” hair style .Regard-ing clothes, short clothes and short pants appeared for men , and tops and skirts for women .Moreo-ver, hemp replaced the use of leather and fur , and became the main material .This was due to agricul-tural development , external contacts with other ethnic groups , and the influence of Han culture during that period . The Moso who lived in the mountain areas still carried knives . However , there were few records about the Moso who lived in the plains.Seen from geographical characteristics , there appeared Yanyuan -Yongning costume zone and Lijiang costume zone where the style and mate-rial of the clothes were quite different .Within the Lijiang costume zone , although there were some differences between the places close to Lijiang town and the mountainous region to the north , the differ-ences were only a result of the geography and cli-mate.Therefore, the costumes could still be in-cluded in the same category .
The Qing dynasty was the period that saw the most dramatic change for Moso costume .Moreo-ver, the costume differences in the various regions became very striking .The head dress , clothes and ornaments in the different regions experienced a great change , and the regional differences became more obvious.Three major zones of Moso costume had been formally formed , i. e. the Lijiang, Yongning-Yanyuan, and Beidi -Eya zones.The costume of Moso men in Lijiang , except for the jacket made from sheep skin and the felt cap , was basically similar to that of the Han Chinese .The women's costume , while keeping the traditional hair style and sheep skin leather cape , experienced some changes in accordance with Han and Mongo-lian costume . Therefore , the women started to wear long gowns, trousers, pleated aprons, and the very typical “seven -star cape”. In the Yongning -Yanyuan area , the traditional Moso costume, such as the long skirt , was kept, but some characteristics of Tibetan costume were also absorbed .In the areas from Beidi of Shangri -la to Eya of Muli, the characteristics of costume in the Ming dynasty were completely preserved , and only a few Tibetan costume elements were absorbed dur-ing the later period of the Qing dynasty .
Through an analysis of the geographical distri-bution and characteristics of the Moso costumes in the Ming and Qing dynasties , we can notice that the Moso costume had developed from a relatively fuzzy “far vision” to a relatively clear “close vi-sion”, and had formed three different costume cul-ture zones , which constituted the present day mul-tiple cultural pattern of the Moso ethnic costume . Seen from the perspective of the three costume zones, the characteristics of the traditional ethnic costume had been kept .However , its appearance and cultural connotations manifested very obvious changes.So, what were the factors promoting such profound change? And what caused the formation of the three different ethnic costume zones? There were many causes for the change in ethnic cos-tume , including internal and external ones .Among them, the internal causes were the key factor .The appearance of differences between the Moso ethnic costumes during the Ming and Qing dynasties were due to the following three reason
Firstly, it was closely related to the policy of the central court .In the areas, such as Lijiang , which were directly managed by the officials sent by the central government after implementation of the gaituguiliu policy ( replacement of native offi-cials with loyal appointed ones ) , the Moso ethnic costume changed to various degrees-while keep-ing ethnic markers , it also tended to meet the“standards” popular in the country .However , in those areas which still kept the institution of the tu-si, tuguan or tumudi ( native officials ) , although the ethnic costume also exhibited some changes , it did not adopt “Han standard” dress, and still pre-served the shape and characteristics of their group . Secondly , it was due to the different geographical location of the various branches of the Moso .The Moso ethnic people were widely distributed in the vast Hengduan mountainous areas where the cli-mates were quite different-this was another factor or even the main factor for differences among the costumes of the Moso people .Thirdly, it was due to the influences of neighboring ethnic groups and their diverse religions .Seen from their area of dis-tribution , the Moso who lived in the north had a close relationship with the Tibetans , because they lived together .From the Ming to the beginning of the Qing , the power of the Lijiang Mu Clan tusi ex-tended to Changdu , Batang , and Litang in eastern Tibet;and some Moso migrated from Lijiang to the places such as Yanjing of Mangkang county , Eya of Muli, etc..However, following the decline of the Mu clan and with the implementation of the gaituguiliu policy , these areas were conquered by the Tibetans.During the long period of contact with the Tibetans , Tibetan culture gradually infil-trated, and the Moso in these places began to con-vert to Tibetan Buddhism .This was in turn , fol-lowed bythe gradual integration of Tibetan customs The Moso ethnic people in Yanyuan and Muli were pushed aside by the Tibetan and Yi in the middle and later periods of the Qing;the power of the tusi or tuguan gradually declined , and the areas they controlled were gradually reduced .Up to the later period of the Republican period , the areas had be-come one dominated by the Tibetan and Yi .Seen from the costumes during the later period of the Qing, there was a Tibetanization trend reflected in the adoption of Tibetan customs and wearing Tibet-an head dress, and clothes.However, in the Qi-he, Jiuhe area of Lijiang , which neighbored with Heqing and Jianchuan of Dali , the Moso and Bai people borrowed costume elements from each oth-er.Therefore, a kind of Moso costume which had elements of both the Moso costume and Bai cos-tume formed-This was a choice of the two groups after they lived together for a long time .The Moso costume in Yongning area was almost the same as the Pumi costume , and there were no obvious differences between them .This was due to the fac-tor that the two groups lived together and worked together for a long time .They fused with each oth-er, and intermarried.Hence, a kind of ethnic fu-sion somewhat like “me in you and you in me”was formed .
Costume is a marker of an “ethnic group” , and it includes both clothes and ornaments .Seen from the vertical line of history , the costume of Moso people has various characteristics in various periods;and seen from the horizontal line of histo-ry, the costume has very obvious regional differ-ences.There are few records on Moso costumes before the Ming dynasty .Only a few records are found, for example, in the shiji· xinanyi liezhuan ( An Account of the Southwestern Yi in The Records of the Historian) , xintangshu· nanman zhuan ( An Account of the Southern Barbarians in the New Tang History) .Since the Ming dynasty , there are more records about the Moso in Han Chinese litera-ture in which new characteristics of Moso costume could be noted .A kind of regional distribution of Moso costume appeared , including the Lijiang cos-tume zone , and the Yanyuan -Yongning costume zone . Seen from the characteristics of costume change , we can conduct research from three as-pectthe head dress , clothes and ornaments .
Compared with the Tang , Song and Yuan dy-nasties, the Moso costume in the Ming dynasty had the following obvious change the phenomenon of wearing a hat or a “cloth-made head dress” ap-peared in Lijiang , while the Yongning -Yanyuan areas still kept the original hair styles , i.e.plai-ted hair and the “three tower” hair style .Regard-ing clothes, short clothes and short pants appeared for men , and tops and skirts for women .Moreo-ver, hemp replaced the use of leather and fur , and became the main material .This was due to agricul-tural development , external contacts with other ethnic groups , and the influence of Han culture during that period . The Moso who lived in the mountain areas still carried knives . However , there were few records about the Moso who lived in the plains.Seen from geographical characteristics , there appeared Yanyuan -Yongning costume zone and Lijiang costume zone where the style and mate-rial of the clothes were quite different .Within the Lijiang costume zone , although there were some differences between the places close to Lijiang town and the mountainous region to the north , the differ-ences were only a result of the geography and cli-mate.Therefore, the costumes could still be in-cluded in the same category .
The Qing dynasty was the period that saw the most dramatic change for Moso costume .Moreo-ver, the costume differences in the various regions became very striking .The head dress , clothes and ornaments in the different regions experienced a great change , and the regional differences became more obvious.Three major zones of Moso costume had been formally formed , i. e. the Lijiang, Yongning-Yanyuan, and Beidi -Eya zones.The costume of Moso men in Lijiang , except for the jacket made from sheep skin and the felt cap , was basically similar to that of the Han Chinese .The women's costume , while keeping the traditional hair style and sheep skin leather cape , experienced some changes in accordance with Han and Mongo-lian costume . Therefore , the women started to wear long gowns, trousers, pleated aprons, and the very typical “seven -star cape”. In the Yongning -Yanyuan area , the traditional Moso costume, such as the long skirt , was kept, but some characteristics of Tibetan costume were also absorbed .In the areas from Beidi of Shangri -la to Eya of Muli, the characteristics of costume in the Ming dynasty were completely preserved , and only a few Tibetan costume elements were absorbed dur-ing the later period of the Qing dynasty .
Through an analysis of the geographical distri-bution and characteristics of the Moso costumes in the Ming and Qing dynasties , we can notice that the Moso costume had developed from a relatively fuzzy “far vision” to a relatively clear “close vi-sion”, and had formed three different costume cul-ture zones , which constituted the present day mul-tiple cultural pattern of the Moso ethnic costume . Seen from the perspective of the three costume zones, the characteristics of the traditional ethnic costume had been kept .However , its appearance and cultural connotations manifested very obvious changes.So, what were the factors promoting such profound change? And what caused the formation of the three different ethnic costume zones? There were many causes for the change in ethnic cos-tume , including internal and external ones .Among them, the internal causes were the key factor .The appearance of differences between the Moso ethnic costumes during the Ming and Qing dynasties were due to the following three reason
Firstly, it was closely related to the policy of the central court .In the areas, such as Lijiang , which were directly managed by the officials sent by the central government after implementation of the gaituguiliu policy ( replacement of native offi-cials with loyal appointed ones ) , the Moso ethnic costume changed to various degrees-while keep-ing ethnic markers , it also tended to meet the“standards” popular in the country .However , in those areas which still kept the institution of the tu-si, tuguan or tumudi ( native officials ) , although the ethnic costume also exhibited some changes , it did not adopt “Han standard” dress, and still pre-served the shape and characteristics of their group . Secondly , it was due to the different geographical location of the various branches of the Moso .The Moso ethnic people were widely distributed in the vast Hengduan mountainous areas where the cli-mates were quite different-this was another factor or even the main factor for differences among the costumes of the Moso people .Thirdly, it was due to the influences of neighboring ethnic groups and their diverse religions .Seen from their area of dis-tribution , the Moso who lived in the north had a close relationship with the Tibetans , because they lived together .From the Ming to the beginning of the Qing , the power of the Lijiang Mu Clan tusi ex-tended to Changdu , Batang , and Litang in eastern Tibet;and some Moso migrated from Lijiang to the places such as Yanjing of Mangkang county , Eya of Muli, etc..However, following the decline of the Mu clan and with the implementation of the gaituguiliu policy , these areas were conquered by the Tibetans.During the long period of contact with the Tibetans , Tibetan culture gradually infil-trated, and the Moso in these places began to con-vert to Tibetan Buddhism .This was in turn , fol-lowed bythe gradual integration of Tibetan customs The Moso ethnic people in Yanyuan and Muli were pushed aside by the Tibetan and Yi in the middle and later periods of the Qing;the power of the tusi or tuguan gradually declined , and the areas they controlled were gradually reduced .Up to the later period of the Republican period , the areas had be-come one dominated by the Tibetan and Yi .Seen from the costumes during the later period of the Qing, there was a Tibetanization trend reflected in the adoption of Tibetan customs and wearing Tibet-an head dress, and clothes.However, in the Qi-he, Jiuhe area of Lijiang , which neighbored with Heqing and Jianchuan of Dali , the Moso and Bai people borrowed costume elements from each oth-er.Therefore, a kind of Moso costume which had elements of both the Moso costume and Bai cos-tume formed-This was a choice of the two groups after they lived together for a long time .The Moso costume in Yongning area was almost the same as the Pumi costume , and there were no obvious differences between them .This was due to the fac-tor that the two groups lived together and worked together for a long time .They fused with each oth-er, and intermarried.Hence, a kind of ethnic fu-sion somewhat like “me in you and you in me”was formed .