Abstract：This essay mainly examines that to what extent Zhang Yimou can be considered as a transnational auteur. It will be discussed based on three aspects： Zhang’s cultural pioneer conscious， the subject and characters of Zhang’s films and the form of Zhang’s works. It will also present Zhang Yimou’s compromise in commercialization.
　　key words：Zhang Yimou;humanity;form
　　Introduction
　　‘Auteur cinema’ can be associated with French New Wave movement in the period from late 1950s to early 1960s. New Wave is a terminology coined by a young generation of film critics such as Fran?ois Truffaut， Jean-Luc Godard， Claude Chabrol and ?ric Rohmer who consciously defy traditional movie narrative style. （Nottingham， 1998） ‘Auteur theory’ was initially put forward by Fran?ois Truffaut in his essay named A Certain Tendency in French Cinema in 1954. （Naremore， n.d.， p. 10） It stresses the role of directors in filmmaking. Truffaut claimed that ‘tomorrow’s film appears to me as even more personal than a novel， as individual and autobiographical as a confession or a diary. Young filmmakers will express themselves in the first person’. （Rutgers press， 2007） It suggests that directors should imprint individual visions into their artistic works as if they were creative authors. For Truffaut， ‘there are no good or bad movies， only good or bad directors’. （Dlibrary， n.d.） A good director’s films can show a consistent theme and strong personal style.
　　Zhang Yimou is a Chinese director with international reputation. His early work--Yellow Earth （1984） （as a cinematographer） was widely regarded as a fresh start of artistic movies in China after the Cultural Revolution. （Silbergeld， 1999， p. 17） In 1986， he rewarded as the Best Actor at Tokyo Film Festival because of his performance in the movie of Old Well. Since 1987 he has engaged on directorial career. The initial work—Red Sorghum （1987）， the winner of Golden Bear at Berlin International Film Festival in 1988， enabled him to ascend into world-director rank. His later works of Ju Dou （1989）， Raise the Red Lantern （1991） and Hero （2003） were nominated for the Best Foreign Language Film at Academy Awards. Both The Story of Qiu Ju （1992） and Not One Less （1999） won the Golden Lion at Venice Film Festival， and the movie of To Live （1994） won Grand Jury Prize at Cannes Film Festival. （Geocities， n.d.）
　　This essay mainly examines that to what extent Zhang Yimou can be considered as a transnational auteur. It will be discussed based on three aspects： Zhang’s cultural pioneer conscious， the subject and characters of Zhang’s films and the form of Zhang’s works. It will also present Zhang Yimou’s compromise in commercialization. 　　Zhang Yimou： a cultural pioneer
　　It seems that there is a dialogic relationship between Zhang’s films and Chinese different historic periods. In fact， it is not easy to achieve. It requires the director to have a remarkable ability to understand cultural context and to reveal the existential value. Such director， in essence， can be viewed as a cultural pioneer who possesses avant-garde spirit that shows an alienation from established conventions and aesthetic orientation. （Abrams， 2004， p. 168） On the other hand， accepted cultural value also keeps changing， it can assimilate and imitate some avant-garde elements and thus previous avant-garde gradually loses its heterogeneity. Therefore， cultural leader should have courage to challenge norms created by him/her. Zhang Yimou’s accomplishment demonstrates such cultural pioneer consciousness.
　　In early 1980s， intellectual discourse emerged as a counterbalance to political discourse in Chinese cultural context. However， the former was controlled by the latter so that it cannot exert its avant-garde function. In addition， intellectual discourse， which stands for elitism ideology， did not release folk emotion but served as another repressive power to human nature. Most films still adopted ‘grand narrative’ that closely relates to mainstream ideology. （Wang， 1998， p. 248） Consequently， the movie of One and Eight filmed by Zhang Yimou was seemed as a challenge to conventional cinema because of Zhang’s original application of asymmetrical composition of the shots to intensify visual effects. In late 1980s， the introduction of plentiful western thoughts has impacted Chinese socialism ideology. ‘Reason’ advocated by intellectual discourse has played a leading role in cultural context. Zhang Yimou pointed out there were few films that successfully depict a vigorous figure. （Wang， 1998， p. 271） His Red Sorghum （1987） was to passionately admire the freedom of life and to sufficiently liberate vital energy among civilians. It really stirred the mass up whose emotion was restrained by reason for long time. In the 1990s， the transition from planned economy to market-oriented economy promoted the diversion from elite culture to popular culture， which centers on market and desires. The mass was increasingly deprived of their true experience about existence. Therefore， Zhang’s early works， namely Red Sorghum （1987）， Ju Dou （1989） and Raise the Red Lantern （1991） that respected instinct desires cannot keep their avant-garde quality. Besides， Zhang’s movies had formed a consistent mode featured by glorious colors but symbolized characters. （Wang， 1998， p. 25） Zhang understood cultural context and realized his limitation so that he gave up modernist narrative style and turn to adopt some postmodernist techniques such as employing figurants and candid skill. The Story of Qiu Ju （1992） was an exemplification of Zhang’s style at that time. It portrays life as it was in order to display the real existent condition of peasants. （Li， 1998， p. 45） This film marks Zhang’s revolt against his previous style and the illusion of popular culture. At the end of 20th century， the mass become anxious social climbers and they have devotion to material gratification. Meanwhile， Hollywood’s movie genres are changing Chinese people’s aesthetic expectation. Zhang’s The Road Home （1999）， conversely， narrates a pure love from a retrospective angle of view. It can evoke sincere emotion and memories in spectators’ mind. On the other side， Zhang Yimou aware that film is not only an art work but also a commodity. To occupy larger part of international movie market， Chinese cinema has to keep pace with global aesthetic trend and to learn from Hollywood’s experience. Therefore， he has created some blockbusters such as Hero （2002）， House of Flying Dagger （2004） and Curse of Golden Flower （2006）. Although those works did not receive unanimous reputation from the critics， they demonstrated Zhang Yimou’s endeavor to combine commerciality and entertainment of western art with typical characteristics of Chinese classical art. 　　Zhang’s movie style is not always the same but his cultural pioneer conscious is consistent. As a result， his works can be concrete representations of ever-variant cultural context. Zhang’s insistence on avant-garde reflects his quality of stubbornness， which not only preserves in his artistic innovations but also humanizes his characters. This point will be discussed in the following part.
　　The theme and characters of Zhang’s films
　　Many Zhang’s films， namely Red Sorghum， Ju Dou and Raise the Red Lantern， The Story of Qiu Ju， To Live， Shanghai Triad and Curse of The Golden Flower are the adaptations of Chinese contemporary novels， that is Mo Yan’s Red Sorghum， Liu Heng’s Fuxi Fuxi， Su Tong’s Wives and Combines and Chen Yuanbin’s The Wan Family’s Lawsuit， Yu Hua’s To Live， Li Xiao’s Gang Law and Cao Yu’s Thunderstorm. Zhang’s purpose of choosing those articles is to represent eastern legends， which are novel to foreign spectators but also not familiar to Chinese audience. For Chinese spectators， the uniqueness of Zhang’s films indicates his avant-garde spirit， which has been covered in the previous section. In western viewpoint， the freshness of his works reflects his global conscious. It is noticed that， Zhang’s theme is not new in western cultural context. The vitality shown in Red Sorghum is agreeable with western Dionysus sprit; Ju Dou can be viewed as the visual representation of Oedipus Complex; Curse of Golden Flower is the eastern edition of Shakespeare’s Hamlet. That， in fact， lays a psychological foundation for westerners to understand Zhang’s movies. Furthermore， Zhang’s ingenuity relies in his aesthetic treatments that can endow a general theme with scenes and implications of China， which can satisfy the curiosity of western spectators. For example， The Story of Qiu Ju relates Qiu Ju’s persistent struggle against village master who hurts her husband’s sexual organ. This seemingly deals with the subject of sex， which is a common theme worldwide. However， Zhang intended to weak this topic but to represent Chinese civilians’ legal sense in modern cultural context. Meanwhile， Zhang adopted documentary techniques and unprofessional performers to reflect true existence in Chinese rural area， which may just meet western expectation of ‘the East’. Although Wang Yichuan and Zhang Yiwu （1993） criticize Zhang Yimou’s success from postcolonial standpoint， it is such strategy that makes Zhang’s films gain the recognition at home and abroad. In addition， Zhang’s films also deal with the subject of culture self-criticism. It may be hard for foreign spectators to acquire identification with such topic because culture self-reflection requires a comprehensive understanding of that particular culture. However， Zhang integrates his introspection on Chinese culture into the exhibition of ethnic customs， and thus his works can be understood across nations. 　　Zhang never gives up paying attention to humanity. In his opinion， Chinese cinema can be transnational only if it expresses common emotion of mankind. （Li， 1998， P. 140） The theme of humanity， in Zhang’s films， is primarily represented by his characters， especially those who are suffering oppression under political， cultural and moral institutions. Most Zhang’s female characters act as a ‘struggler’. They are aggressive and courageous， showing great determination to fight against the destiny. For instance， Qiu Ju （The Story of Qiu Ju）， a pregnant woman， obstinately appealed for an apology; Zhao Di （The Road Home） bravely pursued for ‘my father’， which made her the first girl who grasped free-love right in the village; Thirteen-year-old Wei Minzhi （Not One Less） disregarded any difficulties to look for a school-leaver only for an informal promise; Ju Dou （Ju Dou） could not stand her husband’s abuse and consciously approached Yang Tianqing and had sexual relations with him…Zhang Yimou praises the perseverance of the vitality， especially women’s persistence. By contrast， Zhang’s male figures always play a role as the symbol of suppression such as leprous husband Li Datou in Red Sorghum， patricide Yang Tianbai in Ju Dou and the tyrannical King in Curse of the Golden Flower. Take Raise the Red Lantern as an example. Chen Zuoqian who marry Song Lian as the forth combine can be considered as the feudal dictator. There is no full-face shot towards him throughout the movie. Spectators can only see a vague outline when he appears. Such treatment makes a concrete character become an abstract sign， which signifies the omnipresence of Chen’s despotic power that shackles the human nature. Besides， another part of male figures acts as strugglers’ assistant such as Wan Qinglai in The Story of Qiu Ju and the Prince-Yuan Xiang in Curse of the Golden Flower but they are not tough enough. In Ju Dou， Yang Tianqing loves Ju Dou but he does not dare to kill Yang Jinshan who maltreats Ju Dou. In Red Sorghum， Yu Zhan’ao is relatively masculine. However， he is not much of a revolutionary compared to Jiu’er who took revenge on Japanese invaders.
　　The question is that why Zhang Yimou is frequently to provide a sharp contrast between the female’s unyieldingness and the male’s cowardliness. It should take his personal experience into consideration. Zhang Yimou had suffered scorn and contempt since he was a child because of his family’s relation with Chinese Nationalist Party. The Cultural Revolution compelled him to suspend education and work in marginal area. In order to purchase a camera， Zhang had to sell blood for five months to collect money. After graduation from Beijing Film Academy， he was assigned to Guangxi Film Studio as a cinematographer， which suggests limited possibility to direct movies. （Ni， 2002， pp. 44-50） It indicates Zhang was one of the disadvantaged prior to his success. Furthermore， Chinese male artists have the tradition to express emotion in the female’s tone， especially the gloomy and repressed emotion. Therefore， Zhang exerts himself to represent women’s strife because the female is an underprivileged group in male-dominant society. In some sense， their revolt is his rebel against suppressive authority. Although Zhang Yimou is reticent， he is strong at heart. Once young Zhang confronted a difficult in education， he dared to directly have recourse to Huang Zhen who was the Minister of National Culture Department. In Guangxi Film Studio， Zhang took an initiative to break conventional regulation that only experienced directors are entitled to film cinema. （ibid.） It manifests Zhang’s ambition and firmness that can be associated with his passionate characters. The male images shown as the weak imply Zhang’s intention to deconstruct the ‘power’. 　　The form of Zhang’s film
　　Wassily Kandinsky maintains ‘the form is the outer expression of the inner content.’ （Cited in Minnesota State University Moorhead， 2003） However， in a long time， Chinese artists ignore the form’s artistic function， arguing that the form is nothing more than the means. In consequence， many kinds of arts such as cinema， literature and Beijing opera become the microphone for political ideology without any aesthetic value. Zhang Yimou， by contrast， actively puts western art theories such as expressionism， symbolism and semiology into practice. He takes advantage of formalist elements， namely color， music， light and symbols to express individual feelings. This essay will be discussed color in detail.
　　For Zhang， the color can easily evoke spectators’ sentiment. （Sun， 2000， p. 35） In his movies， the color participates in the construction of films’ meanings. Red in Red Sorghum stands for ardent vitality while red dye-pool in Ju Dou and red lantern in Raise the Red Lantern symbolizes the resentment of human nature and the suppression of male-dominant society; orange color in To Live implies a kind of serenity and firmness that accords with Chinese peasants’ optimism and forbearance; bluish-grey color in Shanghai Triad dramatizes an insidious and covert atmosphere; the blending of colors in Keep Cool stands out the transience of urban life; pervasive golden brown in Curse of the Golden Flower refers to the oppression of imperial authority and patriarchic power.
　　Furthermore， the color is not objective but subjective. Sorghum wine should be white in reality but it is red in Red Sorghum; the novel of Wives and Combines makes no mention of red lanterns that conversely become the thematic properties in Raise the Red Lantern; Ju Dou is a farmer as the novel described， while in Ju Dou she lives in a dye house that is full of red cloths and red dye-pools. It demonstrates Zhang’s intention of using red that can also be associated with red peppers in The Story of Qiu Ju， the red cotton-padded jacket in The Road Home and Fei Xue’s red clothing in Hero and so on. The first reason of Zhang’s preference for red is related to his growth environment. Zhang was born in Shanxi province where red is frequently used in local customs such as weddings and celebrations. Even the soil there is yellow with red. Besides， red stands for some positive and unrestrained qualities that are just accordance with Zhang’s stubbornness and uncompromising spirit. In addition， it indicates Zhang’s denial to realistic description of true life. He undertakes to express himself by changing or exaggerating some objective characteristics of the outer world. He abides by the norms of artistic realism instead of conventional realism. Particularly in Zhang’s early works， art is the distortion of the reality. For example， the custom of ‘Yehe’ represented in Red Sorghum was only recorded in folk poems and Chinese historic books. Zhang Yimou designs this scene based on his imagination： the earth is bathed in the brilliant sunshine， which promises a hope and an encouragement. Yu Zhan’ao exerts all strength to chop thickly dotted red sorghum as if he wished to lay a sacred place for the love rite. Jiu’er， dressed in deep red， is lying on the red-sorghum land in the form of the Chinese character-‘ren’. The picture implies a stark contrast between the vital impulse and the inhumanity of feudal morality. The color of red serves an ultimate purpose-to affirm human subjectivity and individual autonomy. 　　In Zhang’s movies， the form is not separated from the content. Either formalist element can reflect the film’s thematic spirit and also ‘bears the stamp of artist’s personality’. （Humanities web， 2008） Most of his works， as it were， emphasize expression rather than narration， which leads to strong visual impacts that can attract transnational audience.
　　Discussion & Conclusion
　　Planned institution had predominated the production， circulation and reception of Chinese cinema for a long period during which economic profit is not an evaluation standard. A successful film is to communicate mainstream ideology and traditional view of value. On the one hand， planned system is contradictory to the commercial attribute of the cinema as an industry; on the other hand， it is relatively effective for artists to freely express self in the creation. Zhang Yimou also benefited from it. At that time， he could devote himself to make films beyond economic control. He plays a role as a cultural pioneer and his avant-garde spirit consists in the innovation of his previous style and established conventions. Additionally， Zhang keeps his focus on the theme of humanity. He is expert at representing the struggles of characters who are oppressed by political， social and cultural norms. Furthermore， Zhang learns from western aesthetic skills to narrate eastern stories that measure up to the expectation of the West on the basis of color impact and exotic scenes. In his films， the form is an inalienable part of the content， both of which are the expression of Zhang’s personality and emotion. To such extent， Zhang Yimou can be considered as a transnational auteur.
　　However， cinema income has gradually become the decisive factor under market-oriented system since late 1990s. A successful movie does not rely exclusively on one element such as the director. It can be determined by either factor that is related to filmmaking. For example， the success of Hero is not based on individual Zhang Yimou but Zhang Yimou’s group that includes producer-Zhang Weiping， performers-Jet Li， Zhang Ziyi， Maggie Cheung and Tonny Leung， the movie genre-martial arts cinema and so on. In other words， various factors， especially commercial profits， can restrict artists’ individual expression. Zhang Yimou is no exception. According to his latest three films， namely Hero， House of Flying Daggerr and Curse of Golden Flower， artistic particularity and aesthetic value yield to big budget， specula effect， numerous stars， Hollywood marketing mold and even box news. Nothing but visual impact left as Zhang Yimou’s characteristic. Nevertheless， such visual impact， which greatly exceeds the need of story representation and feeling expression， is different from his previous style. Therefore， those three works cannot be accredited to Zhang Yimou as their originator. In fact， it indicates the absence of the ‘auteur’. 　　Reference
　　[1].Abrams， M. H 2004， A Glossary of Literary Terms， 7th edn， Foreign Language Teaching and Researching Press， Beijing.
　　[2].Dlibrary， n.d.， Auteur Theory. Retrieved Apr. 14， 2008.
　　[3].Geocities， n.d. Zhang Yimo. Retrieved Apr. 14， 2008.
　　[4].Humanities Web， 2008， Wassilly Kandinsky： Quotation. Retrieved Apr. 22， 2008.
　　[5].Kandinsky， W 1912， ‘On the Problem of Form’， in The Blue Rider. Retrieved Apr. 21， 2008.
　　[6].Li Erwei， 1998， The Story of Zhang Yimou， Spring Art Press， Shenyang.
　　[7].Naremore， J n.d. ‘Authorship’， in Miller， T & Stam R （ed.）， 2004， A Companion to Film Theory， Blackwell Publishing， Oxford， pp. 9-24
　　[8].Ni Zhen， 2002， Memoirs From the Beijing Film Academy， Duke University Press， North Carolina.
　　[9].Sun Zhongtian， 2000， ‘Zhang Yimou’s Recourse and Astuteness of Movie Art’， Journal of Northeast Normal University （Philosophy and Social Sciences）， Vol.1， pp. 34-39
　　[10].Wang Bin， 1998， This Is Zhang Yimou， TJ Press， Beijing.
　　[11].Zhang Yiwu， 1993， ‘Zhang Yimou in the Global Postcolonial Context’， Contemporary Cinema， Vol.3.